ISSN 2756-3391
African Journal of Parasitology Research | Vol. 14, No. 9, August 2026 | pp. 717–724
DOI: 10.46882/AJPR/140717
Article Type: Full Length Research Paper
Title: Seroepidemiology and risk characterization of Coxiella burnetii and Toxoplasma gondii co-infections among small ruminants in the pastoral zones of northeastern Namibia
Names of Authors: Johannes K. Mwaningange¹, Petrina N. Shivute¹, Andreas M. Kambueshe²
Authors’ Affiliations: ¹Department of Veterinary Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Namibia, Windhoek, Namibia. ²Directorate of Veterinary Services, Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Land Reform, Katima Mulilo, Namibia.
Abstract: Dual infections with zoonotic pathogens pose severe threats to reproductive health in small ruminants and compromise public health safety in pastoral communities. This cross-sectional survey evaluated the seroprevalence, risk factors, and co-infection rates of Coxiella burnetii (Q fever) and Toxoplasma gondii among 840 small ruminants (520 goats and 320 sheep) across extensive pastoral networks in northeastern Namibia. Serum samples were collected from randomly selected pastoral herds and screened using commercial indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits optimized for multi-species detection. The overall seroprevalence of Coxiella burnetii was determined at 24.5 percent (n = 206), while anti-Toxoplasma gondii IgG antibodies were detected in 16.8 percent (n = 141) of the sampled animals. Concurrent seropositivity for both zoonotic agents occurred in 5.2 percent (n = 44) of the livestock population. Goats displayed significantly higher seroprevalence for Coxiella burnetii (28.1 percent) compared to sheep (18.8 percent) (P < 0.05). Multivariable logistic regression analysis associated co-infection risk with dense flock confinement overnight (odds ratio = 3.42, 95 percent confidence interval [1.88 to 6.22]) and historic herd records of unclassified abortions or stillbirths (odds ratio = 4.15, 95 percent confidence interval [2.31 to 7.45]). The high exposure metrics of these zoonotic pathogens highlight a major reproductive drag on indigenous small ruminant assets, requiring targeted veterinary health extension campaigns and integrated farm biosecurity upgrades.
Keywords: Coxiella burnetii, Toxoplasma gondii, Seroepidemiology, Small ruminants, Zoonotic co-infection, Namibia
Manuscript Timeline: Received: 20 July 2026; Revised: 18 August 2026; Accepted: 03 September 2026; Published: 18 September 2026
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